Such preinstruction studies are considered as the gold standard approach to disentangle potential predispositions for develop- ing a learning disorder from the qualitatively and quantitatively different learning experience that affected individuals have. In particular, the current lack of longitudinal studies following children before they undergo mathematical instruction limits our under- standing of the actual developmental origins of dyscalculia. Ĭompared to other neurodevelopmental learning disorders, like dyslexia, the brain basis of dyscalculia is still strongly understudied. Our result s indic ate that math emat ical learnin g defi- cit s ori gin ate fro m at ypi cal de vel opm ent of a fro nt opa rie tal ne two rk tha t is alr ead y de tec ta ble in ear ly chi ldh ood. Multivariate pattern classifica- tion dist ingu ished fu ture ca ses fro m contro ls with up to 87% accur acy bas ed on the regio nal functional activity of the rig ht posterior parietal cortex (PPC), th e net work-level fu nctional activ ity of the right dors olat eral prefr onta l cortex (DLPFC ), and the effe ctiv e functio nal and struc tura l conn ectiv ity of thes e regions. We foll owed this samp le u ntil the age of 7 to 9 year s, identified in dividuals who developed deficits, an d matched th em to a typically deve loping control group using comprehensive behavioral assessmen ts. Here, we cond ucte d func tion al and struc - tural magn etic reson ance imagi ng (MRI) experi ments in 3- to 6-yea r-old child ren withou t for- mal mathe matic al le arnin g ex peri ence. It is not know n, howe ver, how such defi cits emerg e in the cours e of earl y brain deve lopme nt. Mathematical learning d eficits a re defined as a neurodevelo pmental diso rder (dyscalc ulia) in the Inte rnat ional Class ifica tion of Disea ses.
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